ORS: Documents-Research Briefs-CPTED (In Detail)

ORS: Documents-Research

In Detail:
Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design (CPTED)
An overview for public safety professionals

Mindy Duong, Statistical Analyst, Office of Research & Statistic (May 2024)

PDF Version- In Detail: Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design (CPTED)
HTML Version- In Brief: Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design (CPTED)
PDF Version- In Brief: Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design (CPTED)

BACKGROUND

Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design (CPTED) has been utilized in law enforcement practices and city design for decades. The basic principles of CPTED are that the environment impacts crime, both as cause and prevention, and effective implementation requires a collaborative effort from law enforcement agencies and community partners, such as business owners and the general public (Dudley, 2019 & Weyand, 2022). Effective CPTED strategies and implementation have been shown to reduce crime and calls for service, sometimes by more than 60%, and improve public safety (Cozens & Love, 2015 & Dudley, 2019). Effectiveness can be measured quantitatively by examining the total crimes and calls for service, and qualitatively by the overall sense of security felt by the community and their natural participation in helping maintain and monitor properties and shared spaces. (Image Source: Thornton Tomasetti)

First-generation CPTED entails five core principles: 1) natural surveillance, 2) natural access control, 3) territorial reinforcement, 4) maintenance, and 5) activity support. Second- generation principles include 1) social cohesion, 2) threshold capacity, 3) connectivity, and 4) community culture as “the environment can affect behavior but it cannot create community. It is the strength of the social interactions within a community that ultimately creates safe environments” (CPTED Canada, n.d.). Third-generation CPTED principles include sustainability in environmental, public health, economic, and social affairs as criminality and public safety are affected by a myriad of societal and cultural issues beyond physical space (Saville & Rau, 2023). CPTED principles and strategies have been studied and evaluated worldwide, producing a wealth of knowledge on the best practices for reducing criminality and increasing public safety, community engagement, and resilience. (Image Source: Billings Chamber of Commerce)

CPTED is more than simply changing the physical aspects of an environment but also changing the mindset and culture of those within the community to maintain those aspects and promote continual public safety. Initial CPTED strategies may take time to implement, but once in place, protective processes should develop seamlessly so that the environment can be naturally safer. CPTED principles have evolved over the decades to include explanations and risk factors towards criminality beyond physical temptations such as an unlit parking lot or unrestricted access to a building. Understanding how criminality develops in conjunction with creating physical environments that discourage criminal activity in those areas will help develop more effective strategies and implementations for reducing and deterring crimes (Mihinjac & Saville, 2019). CPTED principles were designed to work in conjunction with one another, but have been separated into multiple concepts for educational and strategizing purposes (Saville & Rau, 2023).

FIRST-GENERATION CPTED PRINCIPLES

Natural surveillance refers to an intentional environmental or structural design that promotes better visibility which discourages criminality due to the likelihood of being seen. This is commonly called the “eyes on the street” concept because the environmental design (e.g., well-lit, unobstructed views) allows for increased visibility. Active surveillance refers to planned, intentional activities and mechanics such as patrol officers, security guards, and CCTV cameras. In contrast, passive surveillance refers to a well- designed space that enables even casual passersby to observe the environment easily (Macano, Duda-Banwar, & Klofas, 2018).

Natural access control refers to using signs, locks, fences, barriers, or landscapes (e.g., shrubs, trees, etc.) to clearly indicate the difference between public and private access. Limited access not only keeps people out of spaces where they shouldn’t be but also limits potential escape routes for potential offenders (ICA, 2022).

Territorial reinforcement refers to promoting ownership of a (shared) space as people are naturally protective of things and places they consider theirs, whether formally or informally (ICA, 2022). Lack of territorial reinforcement can create a power vacuum, leading to potential gang activities and turf wars to claim seemingly uninhabitable (e.g., ill-maintained spaces) or underutilized spaces. The sense of exclusivity and ownership can encourage a heightened sense of awareness and fewer opportunities for criminality (Cozens, Babb, & Stefani, 2022).

Maintenance refers to physically maintaining the condition of the environment and promoting a positive and well-cared-for image that attracts more communal activities in the area (Cozens & van der Linde, 2015). A well-maintained space is perceived as well-observed and well-defended, promoting the principles of CPTED.

Activity support, or social management refers to encouraging the legitimate and positive usage of spaces to discourage criminal activities in those spaces. If the space is frequently utilized for appropriate activities, the odds of utilizing it for inappropriate activities are reduced (Larson, 2019). Activity support was not traditionally a part of the first-generation CPTED principles but was a concept developed that paved the way for second-generation principles.

SECOND-GENERATION CPTED PRINCIPLES

Social cohesion refers to the collaboration of those within the community to address local-level issues, such as reducing criminality in their immediate areas. Neighborhood Watch and similar groups are examples of social cohesion where the community bands together for a common purpose (ICA, 2022).

Threshold capacity refers to utilizing space for multiple purposes, such as having residential, commercial, and socialization spaces (e.g., parks) interconnected in one area versus having an oversaturation of one type of establishment (e.g., bars, potential drug-dealing locations, etc.) in one zoned-off area (ICA, 2022).

Connectivity refers to connecting with other groups of people and neighborhoods to achieve a common goal (e.g., reduce criminal activities) (ICA, 2022). Criminality is not bound by neighborhood or city limits, and illegal activity in one area can spread to adjoining or nearby areas.

Community culture refers to a cultural, societal, and mental shift toward public safety being a communal, collaborative effort between people of all races, ethnicities, cultural backgrounds, socioeconomic status, etc. Cultural community programs and activities not only promote increased presence in (public) spaces but also a sense of partnership and responsibility within that community to keep it safe (ICA, 2022). (Image Source: International CPTED Assoc.)

THIRD-GENERATION CPTED PRINCIPLES

Third-generation CPTED principles focus on holistic crime prevention theories that integrate human aspirations and needs that may motivate or discourage criminality. Similar to the Maslow Hierarchy of Needs, certain factors such as the environment, public health, economics, and social affairs contribute to the well-being of the community. When these needs are not met or are unsustainable, criminal activities, social unrest, and community dysfunction are present, undermining any CPTED efforts and initiatives. While the focus of first-generation CPTED focuses on the physical security of the environment and second-generation CPTED focuses on strengthening the bonds within the community, third-generation CPTED expands on human psychology, social ecology, and human needs to present the theory that addressing these issues would inherently enhance CPTED principles and sustainably maintain public safety and reduce criminality. When people feel that their basic safety needs are met and that their neighborhoods are well-maintained and cared for, CPTED principles and strategies develop naturally (Mihinjac & Saville, 2019).

CPTED STRATEGIES FOR LAW ENFORCEMENT OFFICERS

1. Regular contact with business owners to foster strong relationships and encourage accountability and compliance with CPTED best practices on deterring crimes and delinquent behaviors.
2. Detail environmental concerns in police reports such as low lighting or ineffective access control to help support future research on CPTED best practices and implementations.
3. Increase community outreach and community-led policing efforts, including regular attendance at town hall meetings and other community events to educate the public on CPTED strategies.
4. Encourage gatherings in public spaces to deter crime as locations with frequent foot traffic discourage opportunistic offenders as there are many “eyes on the street” (Cozens & Love, 2015).
   - Proximity to green spaces (e.g., parks) has been linked to crime reduction (Larson, 2019).

CPTED STRATEGIES FOR THE COMMUNITY

1. Collaborate with community partners and stakeholders (e.g., customers, tenants, employees, etc.) to promote and educate on CPTED best practices and strategies. CPTED is an ongoing collaborative effort with the entire community, not one person or entity alone (Cozens, Babb, & Stefani, 2022).
2. Maximize visibility (e.g., unobstructed windows, CCTV cameras) and provide adequate lighting to promote natural surveillance and discourage opportunistic offenders.
3. Utilize clear signage and other indications as well as landscape and architectural designs to convey appropriate access for the right people to the right places (i.e., private vs public accessibility).
4. Maintain cleanliness, functionality, and overall appearance of the area to promote civility and prosocial behavior. Well-maintained spaces encourage more public participation and gathering and discourage criminality and antisocial behavior.

Example of CPTED Architectural Elements

(Numbered items below correspond with image.)

1. Use a single, clearly identifiable point of entry and ensure adequate lighting and signage.
2. Use structures to divert persons to reception areas like walkways, planters, furniture or signs.
3. Use low, thorny bushes beneath ground level windows. Next to fences, rambling or climbing thorny plants may discourage intrusion.
4. Eliminate design features that provide access to roofs or upper levels. Use a locking gate between front and backyards. 
   (Image Source: Metropolitan Area Planning Council)

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION & RESOURCES

• American Public Transportation Association’s CPTED for Transit Facilities (pdf)
• International CPTED Association's Quarterly Newsletters
• National Crime Prevention Council’s CPTED Guidebook (pdf)
• Safer Streets Grant Program's Resources for Crime Prevention

Appendix A: The Elements of CPTED (contents of CPTED image above)

• Natural Surveillance. Criminals are less likely to attempt a crime if they are at risk of being seen. Likewise, we are likely to feel safer when we can see and be seen. Any architectural design that enhances the chance of being seen is a form of natural surveillance.
• Natural Access Control. Part of creating a controlled space is focusing on entry and exit points into buildings, parks, parking lots, and neighborhoods.
• Territorial Reinforcement. The use of physical attributes to create defined lines between owned and public spaces, such as fences, signage, landscaping, lighting, etc.
• Maintenance. A well-maintained property creates a sense of territory for legitimate users of that space and shows that the owner or manager cares for and will defend the property against crime.
• Additional Ideas that Support CPTED Efforts. Activity support fosters community interaction. Criminal acts can be discouraged in public spaces when we encourage activities in those spaces by residents, visitors, and other legitimate users.

REFERENCES

Cozens, P., Babb, C., & Stefani, D. (2022). Exploring and Developing CPTED Audits: An Iterative Process. Crime Prevention and Community Safety, Volume 25, 1-19. Retrieved March 25, 2024.

Cozens, P., & Love, T. (2015). A Review and Current Status of CPTED. Journal of Planning Literature. Volume 30(4), 393-412. Retrieved March 25, 2024.

Cozens, P. & van der Linde, T. (2015).Perceptions of CPTED at Australian Railway Stations. Journal of Public Transportation, Volume 18(4), 73-92. Retrieved March 25, 2024.

CPTED Canada (no date). Source: CPTED Principles. CPTEDCanada.Com. Retrieved March 25, 2024.

Dudley, J. (2019).6 Reasons Why CPTED Should be Part of Every Agency's Crime-Fighting Plan. Police1.Com. Retrieved March 25, 2024.

ICA (International CPTED Association). (2022). Primer in CPTED - What is CPTED? International CPTED Association. Retrieved March 25, 2024.

Larson, L. & Ogletree, S. (2019).Can Parks Help Cities Fight Crime? TheConversation.Com. Retrieved March 25, 2024.

Macano, K., Duda-Bonwar, J., & Klofas, J. (2018). CPTED: Designing Out Opportunity and Fear (pdf). Center for Public Safety Initiatives (Working Paper #CLEAN-2018-03). Retrieved March 25, 2024.

Mihinjac, M., & Saville, G. (2019). Third-Generation CPTED. Social Sciences, Volume 8(6), 182-201. Retrieved March 25, 2024.

Saville, G. & Rau, M. (2023).White Paper on CPTED Methodology for the ICA (pdf). International CPTED Association. Retrieved March 25, 2024.

Weyand, O. (2022). Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design in Parker, CO. Retrieved March 25, 2024.

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